Documentation » History » Version 12
Álvaro Herrera, 12/02/2005 07:32 AM
Update a bit. Include the new SPI functions.
1 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | = PL/php - PHP Procedural Language for PostgreSQL = |
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2 | 1 | bford - | |
3 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | [[PageOutline(2-3,Contents,inline)]] |
4 | 1 | bford - | |
5 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | == What is PL/php? == |
6 | 1 | bford - | |
7 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | PL/php is a procedural language with hooks into the PostgreSQL |
8 | 8 | Álvaro Herrera | database sytem, intended to allow writing of PHP functions for |
9 | use as functions inside the PostgreSQL database. |
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10 | It was written by Command Prompt, Inc. and has since |
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11 | 1 | bford - | been open sourced and licensed under the PHP and PostgreSQL (BSD) |
12 | licenses. |
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13 | |||
14 | == Download and Installation == |
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15 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | |
16 | 8 | Álvaro Herrera | Please see [wiki:InstallDocs10 the installation documentation] for instructions on |
17 | how to install PL/php 1.0. To install the new code, which only works with PostgreSQL |
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18 | 8.0 and 8.1 and is currently in development, see [wiki:InstallDocs this page instead]. |
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19 | 7 | Álvaro Herrera | |
20 | 1 | bford - | == Creating the PL/php language == |
21 | 7 | Álvaro Herrera | |
22 | 8 | Álvaro Herrera | Please see the documentation on [wiki:CreateLang80 how to create the language in a database] |
23 | once the library is installed. If you are using PostgreSQL 8.1 you must follow |
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24 | [wiki:CreateLang these other instructions] instead. |
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25 | 7 | Álvaro Herrera | |
26 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | == Functions and Arguments == |
27 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | |
28 | 1 | bford - | To create a function, use the standard syntax: |
29 | |||
30 | |||
31 | {{{ |
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32 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION funcname (argument-types) RETURNS return-type AS $$ |
33 | 1 | bford - | # plphp function body here |
34 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
35 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
36 | |||
37 | |||
38 | Arguments are passed in the $args array and the result value is returned |
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39 | with the 'return' statement. |
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40 | |||
41 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | |
42 | 1 | bford - | {{{ |
43 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION plphp_max(integer, integer) RETURNS integer AS $$ |
44 | 1 | bford - | if ($args[0] > $args[1]) { |
45 | return $args[0]; |
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46 | } else { |
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47 | return $args[1]; |
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48 | } |
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49 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | $$ STRICT LANGUAGE 'plphp' |
50 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
51 | |||
52 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | |
53 | 1 | bford - | NOTE: The use of the STRICT clause saves us from having to |
54 | think about NULL input values to our function. If a NULL value is |
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55 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | passed, the function will not be run at all, but will rather just |
56 | 1 | bford - | return a NULL result automatically. |
57 | |||
58 | In a non-strict function, if the actual value of an argument is NULL, |
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59 | the corresponding $args[n-1] variable will be set to an empty string |
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60 | (unset). |
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61 | |||
62 | |||
63 | == Data Types and Returns == |
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64 | |||
65 | 9 | Álvaro Herrera | The arguments passed into your PL/php function are converted to text |
66 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | so you can manipulate them with the loose typing enjoyed in typical |
67 | 1 | bford - | PHP scripts. Conversely, the return command will accept any string |
68 | that is acceptable input format for the function's declared return |
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69 | type. |
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70 | |||
71 | |||
72 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | == Global Shared Variable == |
73 | 1 | bford - | |
74 | There is a global variable that can be used to store data between |
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75 | function calls, called $_SHARED. |
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76 | |||
77 | {{{ |
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78 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION set_var(text) RETURNS text AS $$ |
79 | 1 | bford - | global $_SHARED; |
80 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | $_SHARED['first']=$args[0]; |
81 | return 'ok'; |
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82 | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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83 | 1 | bford - | |
84 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION get_var() RETURNS text AS $$ |
85 | 1 | bford - | global $_SHARED; |
86 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | return $_SHARED['first']; |
87 | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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88 | 1 | bford - | |
89 | SELECT set_var('hello plphp'); |
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90 | SELECT get_var(); -- will return 'hello plphp' |
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91 | }}} |
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92 | |||
93 | NOTE: The shared global variable is connection-specific. This is |
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94 | useful for passing information around a single script execution, |
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95 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | but it is wiped when the connection is closed. |
96 | |||
97 | |||
98 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | == PostgreSQL Array Support == |
99 | 1 | bford - | |
100 | There is support for multi-dimensional arrays. |
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101 | |||
102 | For example: |
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103 | |||
104 | {{{ |
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105 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION php_array() RETURNS text[][] AS $$ |
106 | 1 | bford - | $return = array(array("Steven", "Klassen"), |
107 | array("Jonathan", "Daugherty")); |
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108 | |||
109 | return $return; |
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110 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
111 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
112 | |||
113 | |||
114 | {{{ |
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115 | sklassen=# select php_array(); |
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116 | php_array |
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117 | ----------------------------------------- |
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118 | {{Steven,Klassen},{Jonathan,Daugherty}} |
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119 | (1 row) |
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120 | }}} |
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121 | |||
122 | |||
123 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | == Polymorphic Arguments and Return Types == |
124 | 1 | bford - | |
125 | Functions may be declared to accept and return the polymorphic types |
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126 | 'anyelement', 'anyarray', and 'anyrecord'. See the PostgreSQL |
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127 | documentation section 33.2.5 for a more detailed explanation of |
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128 | polymorphic functions. |
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129 | |||
130 | For example, |
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131 | |||
132 | {{{ |
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133 | CREATE FUNCTION array_three_values(anyelement, anyelement, anyelement) RETURNS anyarray AS ' |
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134 | $ret[0] = $args[0]; |
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135 | $ret[1] = $args[1]; |
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136 | $ret[2] = $args[2]; |
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137 | return $ret; |
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138 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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139 | |||
140 | SELECT array_three_values(3,2,1); |
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141 | array_three_values |
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142 | -------------------- |
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143 | {3,2,1} |
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144 | (1 row) |
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145 | |||
146 | CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION php_row(integer) RETURNS record AS ' |
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147 | $ret[f1]=$args[0]; |
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148 | $ret[f2]="hello"; |
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149 | $ret[f3]="world"; |
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150 | return $ret; |
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151 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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152 | |||
153 | select * FROM php_row(1) AS (f1 integer, f2 text, f3 text); |
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154 | }}} |
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155 | |||
156 | |||
157 | == Database Access (SPI) == |
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158 | |||
159 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | Some functions are provided for database access. |
160 | 1 | bford - | |
161 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | 1. spi_exec - Execute a query with optional limit. |
162 | 1 | bford - | {{{ |
163 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | resource spi_exec(string query[, int limit]) |
164 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
165 | 1. spi_fetch_row - Return an associative array of the row's results. |
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166 | {{{ |
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167 | array spi_fetch_row(resource result) |
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168 | }}} |
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169 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | 1. spi_status - Return the status of a previous query. If this is SPI_OK_SELECT you can obtain tuples from the result using spi_fetch_row. |
170 | {{{ |
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171 | string spi_status(resource result) |
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172 | }}} |
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173 | 1. spi_processed - Return the number of tuples in a result. |
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174 | {{{ |
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175 | int spi_processed(resource result) |
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176 | }}} |
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177 | 1. spi_rewind - Put the row cursor at the beginning of the result, so spi_fetch_row will continue fetching tuples from the beginning of the result. |
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178 | {{{ |
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179 | void spi_rewind(resource result) |
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180 | }}} |
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181 | 1 | bford - | |
182 | For example: |
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183 | |||
184 | This isn't a particularly useful function, but it will illustrate the |
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185 | above-described access functions. You provide an integer id and it |
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186 | returns the username text field. |
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187 | |||
188 | |||
189 | {{{ |
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190 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE FUNCTION get_username(integer) RETURNS text AS $$ |
191 | 1 | bford - | # Assign the query to a variable. |
192 | $query = "SELECT username FROM users WHERE id = " .$args[0]; |
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193 | |||
194 | # Run the query and get the $result object. |
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195 | $result = spi_exec_query($query); |
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196 | |||
197 | # Fetch the row from the $result. |
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198 | $row = spi_fetch_row($result); |
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199 | |||
200 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | return $row['username']; |
201 | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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202 | 1 | bford - | |
203 | sklassen=# select get_username(1); |
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204 | get_username |
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205 | -------------- |
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206 | sklassen |
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207 | (1 row) |
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208 | }}} |
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209 | |||
210 | == Triggers == |
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211 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | |
212 | 1 | bford - | When a function is being used to return a trigger, the associative |
213 | array $_TD contains trigger-related values. |
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214 | |||
215 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["new"]:: |
216 | 1 | bford - | An associative array containing the values of the new table row for |
217 | INSERT/UPDATE actions, or empty for DELETE. The array is indexed |
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218 | by field name. Important note: Fields that are NULL will not |
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219 | appear in the array! |
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220 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["old"]:: |
221 | 1 | bford - | An associative array containing the values of the old table row for |
222 | 9 | Álvaro Herrera | UPDATE/DELETE actions, or empty for INSERT. The array is indexed |
223 | 1 | bford - | by field name. Important note: Fields that are NULL will not |
224 | appear in the array! |
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225 | 9 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["name"]:: |
226 | 1 | bford - | Contains the trigger name itself. |
227 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["event"]:: |
228 | 9 | Álvaro Herrera | Contains one of the values: "INSERT", "UPDATE", "DELETE". |
229 | 1 | bford - | $_TD["when"]:: |
230 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | Contains one of the values: "BEFORE", "AFTER". |
231 | 1 | bford - | $_TD["level"]:: |
232 | Contains one of the values: "ROW", "STATEMENT". |
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233 | $_TD["relid"]:: |
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234 | Contains the relation ID of the table on which the trigger occured. |
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235 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["relname"]:: |
236 | 1 | bford - | Contains the relation name. |
237 | 10 | Álvaro Herrera | $_TD["args"]:: |
238 | 1 | bford - | An array of arguments passed to the trigger, if any. They can be |
239 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | accessed as $_TD["args"][idx]. For example, $_TD["args"]![0]. |
240 | 1 | bford - | $_TD["argc"]:: |
241 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | The number of arguments passed to the trigger, 0 if none. |
242 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | |
243 | 1 | bford - | === Example of an AFTER INSERT trigger === |
244 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | |
245 | 1 | bford - | Suppose you have a users table with the typical columns and an |
246 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | activity table that you're using to track page accesses. On row |
247 | 1 | bford - | |
248 | INSERT to the activity table, you want to update the last_seen field |
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249 | of the appropriate user's record. |
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250 | |||
251 | Consider the following table definitions: |
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252 | |||
253 | {{{ |
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254 | CREATE TABLE users ( |
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255 | id serial PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL, |
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256 | username text NOT NULL, |
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257 | email text, |
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258 | last_seen timestamp without time zone, |
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259 | active boolean DEFAULT true NOT NULL |
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260 | ); |
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261 | |||
262 | CREATE TABLE activity ( |
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263 | id serial PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL, |
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264 | users_id integer NOT NULL, |
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265 | file_accessed text NOT NULL, |
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266 | stamp timestamp without time zone DEFAULT now() NOT NULL, |
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267 | CONSTRAINT users_id_exists FOREIGN KEY (users_id) REFERENCES users(id) |
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268 | ); |
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269 | |||
270 | CREATE FUNCTION update_lastseen() RETURNS trigger AS ' |
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271 | $new =& $_TD[''new'']; |
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272 | |||
273 | if (isset($new[''users_id'']) && isset($new[''stamp''])) { |
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274 | $query = "UPDATE users SET last_seen = ''" .$new[''stamp'']. |
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275 | "'' WHERE id = " .$new[''users_id'']; |
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276 | |||
277 | $rv = spi_exec_query($query); |
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278 | } |
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279 | |||
280 | return; |
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281 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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282 | |||
283 | CREATE TRIGGER after_update_lastseen_trigger |
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284 | AFTER INSERT ON activity FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE PROCEDURE update_lastseen(); |
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285 | |||
286 | }}} |
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287 | |||
288 | '''1. We'll insert a new user row.''' |
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289 | |||
290 | |||
291 | {{{ |
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292 | sklassen=# insert into users (username, email) values ('sklassen','sklassen@commandprompt.com'); |
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293 | INSERT 1 |
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294 | |||
295 | sklassen=# select * from users where username = 'sklassen'; |
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296 | |||
297 | id | username | email | last_seen | active |
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298 | ----+----------+----------------------------+-----------+-------- |
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299 | 1 | sklassen | sklassen@commandprompt.com | | t |
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300 | (1 row) |
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301 | }}} |
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302 | |||
303 | |||
304 | '''2. Insert a new row into the activity table.''' |
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305 | |||
306 | |||
307 | {{{ |
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308 | sklassen=# insert into activity (users_id, file_accessed) values (1,'index.html'); |
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309 | INSERT 1 |
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310 | }}} |
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311 | |||
312 | '''3. Check and make sure our trigger fired as expected.''' |
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313 | |||
314 | {{{ |
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315 | sklassen=# select * from users where username = 'sklassen'; |
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316 | id | username | email | last_seen | active |
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317 | ----+----------+----------------------------+----------------------------+-------- |
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318 | 1 | sklassen | sklassen@commandprompt.com | 2005-01-10 09:48:57.191595 | t |
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319 | (1 row) |
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320 | }}} |
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321 | |||
322 | === Example of a BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE trigger === |
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323 | |||
324 | Let's say we have a user named admin that we want to prevent the |
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325 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | application from modifying. We'll create a BEFORE DELETE trigger that |
326 | 1 | bford - | prevents them from deleting the row and a BEFORE UPDATE trigger that |
327 | prevents them modifying the username on which the previous trigger |
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328 | depends. |
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329 | |||
330 | {{{ |
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331 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE TABLE users (username text, email text); |
332 | INSERT INTO users VALUES ('admin', 'admin@commandprompt.com'); |
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333 | INSERT INTO users VALUES ('darcy', 'darcy@example.com'); |
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334 | |||
335 | CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION immortal() RETURNS trigger AS $$ |
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336 | 1 | bford - | # The record may not be deleted if the username is "admin". |
337 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | if ($_TD['old']['username'] == 'admin') { |
338 | pg_raise('notice', "You cannot delete the admin user"); |
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339 | return 'SKIP'; |
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340 | } |
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341 | return; |
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342 | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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343 | 1 | bford - | |
344 | CREATE TRIGGER before_delete_immortal_trigger BEFORE DELETE ON users |
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345 | FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE PROCEDURE immortal(); |
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346 | |||
347 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION protect_admin() RETURNS trigger AS $$ |
348 | 1 | bford - | # Do not let them modify the username of the admin account. |
349 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | $oldUsername = $_TD['old']['username']; |
350 | $newUsername = $_TD['new']['username']; |
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351 | 1 | bford - | |
352 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | if ($oldUsername == 'admin' && ($oldUsername != $newUsername)) { |
353 | pg_raise('notice', "You cannot change the admin username."); |
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354 | return 'SKIP'; |
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355 | 1 | bford - | } else { |
356 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | return; |
357 | 1 | bford - | } |
358 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
359 | 1 | bford - | |
360 | CREATE TRIGGER before_update_protect_admin_trigger BEFORE UPDATE ON |
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361 | users FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE PROCEDURE protect_admin(); |
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362 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | }}} |
363 | 1 | bford - | |
364 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | Now the user admin cannot be deleted, nor its username can be changed: |
365 | |||
366 | {{{ |
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367 | pl_regression=# select * from users; |
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368 | username | email |
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369 | ----------+------------------------- |
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370 | admin | admin@commandprompt.com |
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371 | darcy | darcy@example.com |
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372 | 1 | bford - | (2 rows) |
373 | |||
374 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | pl_regression=# update users set username = 'foobar'; |
375 | NOTICE: plphp: You cannot change the admin username. |
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376 | UPDATE 1 |
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377 | 1 | bford - | |
378 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | pl_regression=# select * from users; |
379 | username | email |
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380 | ----------+------------------------- |
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381 | admin | admin@commandprompt.com |
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382 | foobar | darcy@example.com |
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383 | (2 rows) |
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384 | 1 | bford - | |
385 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | pl_regression=# delete from users; |
386 | NOTICE: plphp: You cannot delete the admin user |
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387 | DELETE 1 |
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388 | |||
389 | pl_regression=# select * from users; |
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390 | username | email |
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391 | ----------+------------------------- |
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392 | admin | admin@commandprompt.com |
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393 | (1 row) |
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394 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
395 | |||
396 | |||
397 | == Trusted vs. Untrusted == |
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398 | |||
399 | Normally, PL/php is installed as a "trusted" procedural language named |
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400 | 'plphp'. In this configuration, PHP will run in "safe mode". Read |
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401 | more about the restrictions here: |
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402 | |||
403 | http://www.php.net/manual/en/features.safe-mode.functions.php |
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404 | |||
405 | In general, the operations that are restricted are those that interact |
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406 | with the environment. This includes file operations, require, and use |
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407 | (for external modules). |
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408 | |||
409 | Since there is no way to gain access to the internals of the database |
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410 | backend process or the operating system itself, any unprivileged |
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411 | database user may use functions written in this language. |
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412 | |||
413 | An example of a NON-working function due to security constraints: |
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414 | |||
415 | {{{ |
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416 | CREATE FUNCTION read_passwd_file() RETURNS text AS ' |
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417 | readfile("/etc/passwd"); |
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418 | return 0; |
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419 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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420 | }}} |
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421 | |||
422 | It will appear to execute, but depending on your log level, you'll may |
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423 | see something like the following: |
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424 | |||
425 | {{{ |
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426 | Warning: readfile(): SAFE MODE Restriction in effect. The script |
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427 | whose uid is 500 is not allowed to access /etc/passwd owned by uid 0 |
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428 | in Command line code on line 3 |
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429 | |||
430 | Warning: readfile(/etc/passwd): failed to open stream: Success in |
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431 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | plphp function source on line 3 |
432 | }}} |
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433 | 1 | bford - | |
434 | Sometimes it is desirable to write PHP functions that are not |
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435 | restricted. In this case, you can create the language as 'plphpu' to |
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436 | enable the previously unavailable functions. |
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437 | |||
438 | {{{ |
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439 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE LANGUAGE plphpu; |
440 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
441 | 4 | Álvaro Herrera | |
442 | 1 | bford - | |
443 | == Composite Type Arguments == |
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444 | |||
445 | Composite-type arguments are passed to the function as associative |
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446 | array. The keys of the array are the attribute names of |
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447 | the composite type. Here is an example: |
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448 | |||
449 | {{{ |
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450 | CREATE TABLE employee ( |
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451 | name text, |
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452 | basesalary integer, |
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453 | bonus integer |
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454 | ); |
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455 | |||
456 | CREATE FUNCTION empcomp(employee) RETURNS integer AS ' |
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457 | return $args[0][''basesalary''] + $args[0][''bonus'']; |
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458 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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459 | |||
460 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | INSERT INTO employee values ('Josh', 1000, 10); |
461 | INSERT INTO employee values ('Darcy', 500, 20); |
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462 | |||
463 | 1 | bford - | SELECT name, empcomp(employee) FROM employee; |
464 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | }}} |
465 | 1 | bford - | |
466 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | This example results in the following output: |
467 | |||
468 | {{{ |
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469 | name | empcomp |
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470 | -------+--------- |
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471 | Josh | 1010 |
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472 | Darcy | 520 |
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473 | (2 rows) |
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474 | 1 | bford - | }}} |
475 | |||
476 | == Returning A Row (composite type) == |
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477 | |||
478 | To return a row or composite-type value from a PL/php-language |
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479 | function, you can use an indexed array: |
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480 | |||
481 | {{{ |
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482 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE TYPE php_row AS (f1 integer, f2 text, f3 text); |
483 | 1 | bford - | |
484 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION php_row(integer) RETURNS php_row AS $$ |
485 | $ret['f1'] = $args[0]; |
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486 | $ret['f3'] = "world"; |
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487 | $ret['f2'] = "hello"; |
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488 | 1 | bford - | return $ret; |
489 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | $$ LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
490 | 1 | bford - | |
491 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | SELECT * FROM php_row(1); |
492 | }}} |
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493 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | |
494 | 1 | bford - | Will return: |
495 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | {{{ |
496 | 6 | Álvaro Herrera | f1 | f2 | f3 |
497 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | ----+-------+------- |
498 | 1 | bford - | 1 | hello | world |
499 | }}} |
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500 | |||
501 | |||
502 | == Returning multiple rows (SRF functions) == |
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503 | |||
504 | SRF stands for "set-returning functions". This means you can return |
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505 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | multiple rows, like in the following example: |
506 | 1 | bford - | |
507 | {{{ |
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508 | CREATE TYPE __testsetphp AS (f1 integer, f2 text, f3 text); |
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509 | 2 | Álvaro Herrera | |
510 | 1 | bford - | CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION php_set(integer) RETURNS SETOF __testsetphp AS ' |
511 | $ret[0][f1]=$args[0]; |
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512 | $ret[0][f2]="hello"; |
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513 | $ret[0][f3]="world"; |
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514 | |||
515 | $ret[1][f1]=2*$args[0]; |
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516 | $ret[1][f2]="hello"; |
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517 | $ret[1][f3]="postgres"; |
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518 | |||
519 | $ret[2][f1]=3*$args[0]; |
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520 | $ret[2][f2]="hello"; |
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521 | $ret[2][f3]="plphp"; |
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522 | return $ret; |
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523 | ' LANGUAGE 'plphp'; |
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524 | |||
525 | SELECT * FROM php_set(1); |
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526 | |||
527 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | Will return: |
528 | 1 | bford - | f1 | f2 | f3 |
529 | ----+-------+---------- |
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530 | 1 | hello | world |
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531 | 3 | Álvaro Herrera | 2 | hello | postgres |
532 | 10 | Álvaro Herrera | 3 | hello | plphp |
533 | }}} |
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534 | 1 | bford - | |
535 | == Limitations == |
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536 | |||
537 | 12 | Álvaro Herrera | PL/php functions cannot call each other directly because their names |
538 | are mangled. |